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		<h1><img src="../../boost.png" alt="boost.png (6897 bytes)" align="center" WIDTH="277" HEIGHT="86">Header
			<a href="../../boost/utility.hpp">boost/utility.hpp</a></h1>
		<p>The entire contents of the header <code><a href="../../boost/utility.hpp">&lt;boost/utility.hpp&gt;</a></code>
			are in <code>namespace boost</code>.</p>
		<h2>Contents</h2>
		<ul>
			<li>
				Class templates supporting the <a href="doc/html/base_from_member.html">
					base-from-member idiom</a></li>
			<li>
				Function templates <a href="../core/doc/html/core/checked_delete.html">checked_delete() and 
					checked_array_delete()</a> (moved to the Boost.Core library)</li>
			<li>
				Function templates <a href="../iterator/doc/html/iterator/algorithms/next_prior.html">next() and prior()</a> (moved to the Boost.Iterator library)</li>
			<li>
				Class <a href="../core/doc/html/core/noncopyable.html">noncopyable</a> (moved to the Boost.Core library)</li>
			<li>
				Function template <a href="../core/doc/html/core/addressof.html">addressof()</a> (moved to the Boost.Core library)</li>
                        <li>Class template <a href="#result_of">result_of</a></li>
                        <li>
				Macro <a href="#BOOST_BINARY">BOOST_BINARY</a></li>
                        <li><a href="index.html">Other utilities not part of <code>utility.hpp</code></a></li>
		</ul>
		<h2>

                <h2><a name="result_of">Class template
                result_of</a></h2> <p>The class template
                <code>result_of</code> helps determine the type of a
                call expression. For example, given an lvalue <code>f</code> of
                type <code>F</code> and lvalues <code>t1</code>,
                <code>t2</code>, ..., <code>t<em>N</em></code> of
                types <code>T1</code>, <code>T2</code>, ...,
                <code>T<em>N</em></code>, respectively, the type
                <code>result_of&lt;F(T1, T2, ...,
                T<em>N</em>)&gt;::type</code> defines the result type
                of the expression <code>f(t1, t2,
                ...,t<em>N</em>)</code>. This implementation permits
                the type <code>F</code> to be a function pointer,
                function reference, member function pointer, or class
                type. By default, <em>N</em> may be any value between 0 and
                16. To change the upper limit, define the macro
                <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_NUM_ARGS</code> to the maximum
                value for <em>N</em>. Class template <code>result_of</code>
                resides in the header <code>&lt;<a
                href="../../boost/utility/result_of.hpp">boost/utility/result_of.hpp</a>&gt;</code>.</p>

                <p>If your compiler's support for <code>decltype</code> is
                adequate, <code>result_of</code> automatically uses it to
                deduce the type of the call expression, in which case
                <code>result_of&lt;F(T1, T2, ...,
                T<em>N</em>)&gt;::type</code> names the type
                <code>decltype(boost::declval&lt;F&gt;()(boost::declval&lt;T1&gt;(),
                boost::declval&lt;T2&gt;(), ...,
                boost::declval&lt;T<em>N</em>&gt;()))</code>, as in the
                following example.</p>

                <blockquote>
                <pre>struct functor {
    template&lt;class T&gt;
    T operator()(T x)
    {
        return x;
    }
};

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    functor(int)
&gt;::type type; // type is int</pre>
                </blockquote>

                <p>You can test whether <code>result_of</code> is using
                <code>decltype</code> by checking if the macro
                <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_DECLTYPE</code> is defined after
                including <code>result_of.hpp</code>. You can also force
                <code>result_of</code> to use <code>decltype</code> by
                defining <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_DECLTYPE</code> prior
                to including <code>result_of.hpp</code>.</p>

                <p>If <code>decltype</code> is not used,
                then automatic result type deduction of function
                objects is not possible. Instead, <code>result_of</code>
                uses the following protocol to allow the programmer to
                specify a type. When <code>F</code> is a class type with a
                member type <code>result_type</code>,
                <code>result_of&lt;F(T1, T2, ...,
                T<em>N</em>)&gt;::type</code> is
                <code>F::result_type</code>. When <code>F</code> does
                not contain <code>result_type</code>,
                <code>result_of&lt;F(T1, T2, ...,
                T<em>N</em>)&gt;::type</code> is <code>F::result&lt;F(T1,
                T2, ..., T<em>N</em>)&gt;::type</code> when
                <code><em>N</em> &gt; 0</code> or <code>void</code>
                when <code><em>N</em> = 0</code>. Note that it is the
                responsibility of the programmer to ensure that
                function objects accurately advertise their result
                type via this protocol, as in the following
                example.</p>

                <blockquote>
                <pre>struct functor {
    template&lt;class&gt; struct result;

    template&lt;class F, class T&gt;
    struct result&lt;F(T)&gt; {
        typedef T type;
    };

    template&lt;class T&gt;
    T operator()(T x)
    {
        return x;
    }
};

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    functor(int)
&gt;::type type; // type is int</pre>
                </blockquote>

                <p>Since <code>decltype</code> is a new language
                feature recently standardized in C++11,
                if you are writing a function object
                to be used with <code>result_of</code>, for
                maximum portability, you might consider following
                the above protocol even if your compiler has
                proper <code>decltype</code> support. If you wish to continue to
                use the protocol on compilers that
                support <code>decltype</code>, there are two options:
                You can use <code>boost::tr1_result_of</code>, which is also
                defined in <code>&lt;<a href="../../boost/utility/result_of.hpp">boost/utility/result_of.hpp</a>&gt;</code>.
                Alternatively, you can define the macro
                <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_TR1</code>, which causes
                <code>result_of</code> to use the protocol described
                above instead of <code>decltype</code>. If you choose to
                follow the protocol, take care to ensure that the
                <code>result_type</code> and
                <code>result&lt;&gt;</code> members accurately
                represent the return type of
                <code>operator()</code> given a call expression.</p>

                <p>Additionally, <code>boost::result_of</code>
                provides a third mode of operation, which some users
                may find convenient. When
                <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_TR1_WITH_DECLTYPE_FALLBACK</code>
                is defined, <code>boost::result_of</code> behaves as
                follows. If the function object has a member
                type <code>result_type</code> or member
                template <code>result&lt;&gt;</code>, then
                <code>boost::result_of</code> will use the TR1
                protocol. Otherwise,
                <code>boost::result_of</code> will
                use <code>decltype</code>. Using TR1 with
                a <code>declytpe</code> fallback may workaround
                certain problems at the cost of portability. For
                example:
                <ul>
                    <li>Deficient compiler: If your code
                    requires <code>boost::result_of</code> to work
                    with incomplete return types but your
                    compiler's <code>decltype</code> implementation
                    does not support incomplete return types, then you
                    can use the TR1 protocol as a workaround. Support
                    for incomplete return types was added late in the
                    C++11 standardization process
                    (see <a href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2011/n3276.pdf">N3276</a>)
                    and is not implemented by some compilers.</li>

                    <li>Deficient legacy code: If your existing TR1
                    function object advertises a different type than
                    the actual result type deduced
                    by <code>decltype</code>, then using TR1 with a
                    <code>decltype</code> fallback will allow you to
                    work with both your existing TR1 function objects
                    and new C++11 function object. This situation
                    could occur if your legacy function objects
                    misused the TR1 protocol. See the documentation on
                    known <a href="#result_of_tr1_diff">differences</a>
                    between <code>boost::result_of</code> and TR1.</li>
                </ul>

                <a name="BOOST_NO_RESULT_OF"></a>
                <p>This implementation of <code>result_of</code>
                requires class template partial specialization, the
                ability to parse function types properly, and support
                for SFINAE. If <code>result_of</code> is not supported
                by your compiler, including the header 
                <code>boost/utility/result_of.hpp</code> will
                define the macro <code>BOOST_NO_RESULT_OF</code>.</p>

                <p>For additional information
                about <code>result_of</code>, see the C++ Library
                Technical Report,
                <a href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2005/n1836.pdf">N1836</a>,
                or, for motivation and design rationale,
                the <code>result_of</code> <a href="http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/docs/papers/2003/n1454.html">proposal</a>.</p>

                <a name="result_of_guidelines">
                <h3>Usage guidelines for boost::result_of</h3>
                </a>

                <p>The following are general suggestions about when
                and how to use <code>boost::result_of</code>.</p>

                <ol>
                <li> If you are targeting C++11 and are not concerned
                about portability to non-compliant compilers or
                previous versions of the standard, then use
                <code>std::result_of</code>. If <code>std::result_of</code>
                meets your needs, then there's no reason to stop using
                it.</li>

                <li> If you are targeting C++11 but may port your code
                to legacy compilers at some time in the future, then
                use <code>boost::result_of</code> with
                <code>decltype</code>. When <code>decltype</code> is
                used <code>boost::result_of</code>
                and <code>std::result_of</code> are usually
                interchangeable. See the documentation on
                known <a href="#result_of_cxx11_diff">differences</a>
                between boost::result_of and C++11 result_of.</li>

                <li> If compiler portability is required,
                use <code>boost::result_of</code> with the TR1 protocol.</li>
                </ol>

                <p>Regardless of how you
                configure <code>boost::result_of</code>, it is
                important to bear in mind that the return type of a
                function may change depending on its arguments, and
                additionally, the return type of a member function may
                change depending on the cv-qualification of the
                object. <code>boost::result_of</code> must be passed
                the appropriately cv-qualified types in order to
                deduce the corresponding return type. For example:

                <blockquote>
                <pre>struct functor {
    int& operator()(int);
    int const& operator()(int) const;

    float& operator()(float&);
    float const& operator()(float const&);
};

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    functor(int)
&gt;::type type1; // type1 is int &

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    const functor(int)
&gt;::type type2; // type2 is int const &

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    functor(float&)
&gt;::type type3; // type3 is float &

typedef boost::result_of&lt;
    functor(float const&)
&gt;::type type4; // type4 is float const &</pre>
                </blockquote>

                <a name="result_of_tr1_protocol_guidelines">
                <h3>Usage guidelines for the TR1 result_of protocol</h3>
                </a>

                <p>On compliant C++11
                compilers, <code>boost::result_of</code> can
                use <code>decltype</code> to deduce the type of any
                call expression, including calls to function
                objects. However, on pre-C++11 compilers or on
                compilers without adequate decltype support,
                additional scaffolding is needed from function
                objects as described above. The following are
                suggestions about how to use the TR1 protocol.</p>

                <ul>
                    <li>When the return type does not depend on the
                    argument types or the cv-qualification of the
                    function object, simply
                    define <code>result_type</code>. There is no need
                    to use the <code>result</code> template unless the
                    return type varies.</li>

                    <li>Use the protocol specified type when defining
                    function prototypes. This can help ensure the
                    actual return type does not get out of sync with
                    the protocol specification. For example:

                   <blockquote>
                   <pre>struct functor {
    typedef int result_type;
    result_type operator()(int);
};</pre>
                   </blockquote> </li>

                   <li>Always specify the <code>result</code>
                   specialization near the corresponding
                   <code>operator()</code> overload. This can make it
                   easier to keep the specializations in sync with the
                   overloads. For example:

                   <blockquote>
                   <pre>struct functor {
    template&lt;class&gt; struct result;

    template&lt;class F&gt;
    struct result&lt;F(int)&gt; {
        typedef int& type;
    };
    result&lt;functor(int)&gt;::type operator()(int);

    template&lt;class F&gt;
    struct result&lt;const F(int)&gt; {
        typedef int const& type;
    };
    result&lt;const functor(int)&gt;::type operator()(int) const;
};</pre>
                   </blockquote> </li>

                   <li>Use type transformations to simplify
                   the <code>result</code> template specialization. For
                   example, the following uses
                   <a href="../type_traits/doc/html/index.html">Boost.TypeTraits</a>
                   to specialize the <code>result</code> template for
                   a single <code>operator()</code> that can be called on
                   both a const and non-const function object with
                   either an lvalue or rvalue argument.

                   <blockquote>
                   <pre>struct functor {
    template&lt;class&gt; struct result;

    template&lt;class F, class T&gt;
    struct result&lt;F(T)&gt; 
        : boost::remove_cv&lt;
              typename boost::remove_reference&lt;T&gt;::type
          &gt;
    {};

    template&lt;class T&gt;
    T operator()(T const&amp; x) const;
};</pre>
                   </blockquote></li>
                </ul>

                <a name="result_of_tr1_diff">
                <h3>Known differences between boost::result_of and TR1 result_of</h3>
                </a>

                When using <code>decltype</code>, <code>boost::result_of</code>
                ignores the TR1 protocol and instead deduces the
                return type of function objects directly
                via <code>decltype</code>. In most situations, users
                will not notice a difference, so long as they use the
                protocol correctly. The following are situations in
                which the type deduced
                by <code>boost::result_of</code> is known to differ depending on
                whether <code>decltype</code> or the TR1 protocol is
                used.

                <ul>
                <li> TR1 protocol misusage

                     <p>When using the TR1
                     protocol, <code>boost::result_of</code> cannot
                     detect whether the actual type of a call to a
                     function object is the same as the type specified
                     by the protocol, which allows for the possibility
                     of inadvertent mismatches between the specified
                     type and the actual type. When
                     using <code>decltype</code>, these subtle bugs
                     may result in compilation errors. For example:</p>

                     <blockquote>
                     <pre>struct functor {
   typedef short result_type;
   int operator()(short);
};

#ifdef BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_DECLTYPE

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;boost::result_of&lt;functor(short)&gt;::type, int&gt;::value
)); 

#else

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;boost::result_of&lt;functor(short)&gt;::type, short&gt;::value
));

#endif</pre>
                   </blockquote>

                  <p>Note that the user can
                  force <code>boost::result_of</code> to use the TR1
                  protocol even on platforms that
                  support <code>decltype</code> by
                  defining <code>BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_TR1</code>.</p></li>

                  <li> Nullary function objects

                       <p>When using the TR1 protocol, <code>boost::result_of</code>
                       cannot always deduce the type of calls to
                       nullary function objects, in which case the
                       type defaults to void. When using <code>decltype</code>,
                       <code>boost::result_of</code> always gives the actual type of the
                       call expression. For example:</p>

                       <blockquote>
                       <pre>struct functor {
   template&lt;class&gt; struct result {
       typedef int type;
   };
   int operator()();
};

#ifdef BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_DECLTYPE

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;boost::result_of&lt;functor()&gt;::type, int&gt;::value
));

#else

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;boost::result_of&lt;functor()&gt;::type, void&gt;::value
));

#endif</pre>
                       </blockquote>

                       <p>Note that there are some workarounds for the
                       nullary function problem. So long as the return
                       type does not vary,
                       <code>result_type</code> can always be used to
                       specify the return type regardless of arity. If the
                       return type does vary, then the user can
                       specialize <code>boost::result_of</code> itself for
                       nullary calls.</p></li>

                  <li> Non-class prvalues and cv-qualification

                       <p>When using the TR1
                       protocol, <code>boost::result_of</code> will
                       report the cv-qualified type specified
                       by <code>result_type</code> or
                       the <code>result</code> template regardless of
                       the actual cv-qualification of the call
                       expression. When using
                       <code>decltype</code>, <code>boost::result_of</code>
                       will report the actual type of the call expression,
                       which is not cv-qualified when the expression is a
                       non-class prvalue. For example:</p>

                       <blockquote>
                       <pre>struct functor {
   template&lt;class&gt; struct result;
   template&lt;class F, class T&gt; struct result&lt;F(const T)&gt; {
       typedef const T type;
   };

   const short operator()(const short);
   int const & operator()(int const &);
};

// Non-prvalue call expressions work the same with or without decltype.

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;
       boost::result_of&lt;functor(int const &)&gt;::type,
       int const &
::value
));

// Non-class prvalue call expressions are not actually cv-qualified,
// but only the decltype-based result_of reports this accurately.

#ifdef BOOST_RESULT_OF_USE_DECLTYPE

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;
       boost::result_of&lt;functor(const short)&gt;::type,
       short
::value
));

#else

BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((
   boost::is_same&lt;
       boost::result_of&lt;functor(const short)&gt;::type,
       const short
::value
));

#endif</pre>
                       </blockquote></li>
                </ul>

                <a name="result_of_cxx11_diff">
                <h3>Known differences between boost::result_of and C++11 result_of</h3>
                </a>

                <p>When using <code>decltype</code>, <code>boost::result_of</code>
                implements most of the C++11 result_of
                specification. One known exception is that
                <code>boost::result_of</code> does not implement the
                requirements regarding pointers to member data.</p>

                <p>Created by Doug Gregor. Contributions from Daniel Walker, Eric Niebler, Michel Morin and others</p>

		<h2><a name="BOOST_BINARY">Macro BOOST_BINARY</a></h2>

		<p>The macro <code>BOOST_BINARY</code> is used for the
                representation of binary literals. It takes as an argument
                a binary number arranged as an arbitrary amount of 1s and 0s in
                groupings of length 1 to 8, with groups separated
                by spaces. The type of the literal yielded is determined by
                the same rules as those of hex and octal
                literals (<i>2.13.1p1</i>). By implementation, this macro
                expands directly to an octal literal during preprocessing, so
                there is no overhead at runtime and the result is useable in
                any place that an octal literal would be.</p>

		<p>In order to directly support binary literals with suffixes,
                additional macros of the form BOOST_BINARY_XXX are also
                provided, where XXX is a standard integer suffix in all capital
                letters. In addition, LL and ULL suffixes may be used for representing
                long long and unsigned long long types in compilers which provide
                them as an extension.</p>


                <p>The BOOST_BINARY family of macros resides in the header
                <a
                href="../../boost/utility/binary.hpp">&lt;boost/utility/binary.hpp&gt;</a>
                which is automatically included by
                <a
                href="../../boost/utility.hpp">&lt;boost/utility.hpp&gt;</a>.

		<p>Contributed by Matt Calabrese.</p><p>
		</p><h3>Example</h3>
		<blockquote>
			<pre>
void foo( int );

void foo( unsigned long );

void bar()
{
  int value1 = BOOST_BINARY( 100 111000 01 1 110 );

  unsigned long value2 = BOOST_BINARY_UL( 100 001 ); // unsigned long

  long long value3 = BOOST_BINARY_LL( 11 000 ); // long long if supported

  assert(    BOOST_BINARY( 10010 )
          &  BOOST_BINARY( 11000 )
          == BOOST_BINARY( 10000 )
        );

  foo( BOOST_BINARY( 1010 ) ); // calls the first foo

  foo( BOOST_BINARY_LU( 1010 ) ); // calls the second foo
}
</pre></blockquote>
		<hr>
		<p>Revised&nbsp; <!--webbot bot="Timestamp" S-Type="EDITED" S-Format="%d %B, %Y" startspan
-->04 September, 2008<!--webbot bot="Timestamp" endspan i-checksum="39369"
-->
		</p>
		<p>&copy; Copyright Beman Dawes 1999-2003.</p>
<p>Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. See
<a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt">www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a></p>

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