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<a name="boost_contract.advanced"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html" title="Advanced">Advanced</a>
</h2></div></div></div>
<div class="toc"><dl class="toc">
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions">Pure
      Virtual Public Functions</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values">Optional
      Return Values</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions">Private
      and Protected Functions</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions">Friend Functions</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads">Function
      Overloads</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__">Lambdas,
      Loops, Code Blocks (and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>)</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks">Implementation
      Checks</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body">Old
      Values Copied at Body</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides">Named Overrides</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers">Access Specifiers</a></span></dt>
<dt><span class="section"><a href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__">Throw
      on Failures (and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code>)</a></span></dt>
</dl></div>
<p>
      This section is a guide to advanced usage of this library.
    </p>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions" title="Pure Virtual Public Functions">Pure
      Virtual Public Functions</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        In C++, pure virtual functions are allowed to have a <a href="http://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/abstract_class" target="_top">default
        implementation</a> as long as such implementation is programmed out-of-line
        so defined outside the class declaring the pure virtual function <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="special">...</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span></code>.
      </p>
<p>
        Contracts for pure virtual public functions are programmed using the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        function like for (non-pure) virtual public functions (all consideration
        made in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.virtual_public_functions" title="Virtual Public Functions">Virtual
        Public Functions</a> apply). However, contracts have to be programmed
        out-of-line, in the default implementation of the pure virtual function.
        For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/pure_virtual_public.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">pure_virtual_public.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">Iterator</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">range</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="comment">// Pure virtual function declaration (contract in definition below).</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="identifier">Iterator</span> <span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="comment">// Pure virtual function default implementation (out-of-line in C++).</span>
<span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">Iterator</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">Iterator</span> <span class="identifier">range</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">Iterator</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">Iterator</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// As usual, virtual pass `result` right after `v`...</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">Iterator</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">empty</span><span class="special">())</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">// Pure function body (never executed by this library).</span>
    <span class="identifier">assert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        This library will never actually execute the pure virtual function body while
        it is calling the pure virtual function default implementation to check contracts
        for subcontracting. Therefore, programmers can safely <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
        at the beginning of the body if they intend for that body to never be executed
        (or they can program a working body in case they need to use pure virtual
        function default implementations as usual in C++).
      </p>
<h5>
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.h0"></a>
        <span class="phrase"><a name="boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.subcontracting_preconditions_always_true_or_false"></a></span><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.subcontracting_preconditions_always_true_or_false">Subcontracting
        Preconditions Always True or False</a>
      </h5>
<p>
        As seen in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
        Function Overrides</a>, preconditions of overriding public functions are
        checked in <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#or_anchor"><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>OR</em></span></code></a>
        with preconditions of overridden virtual public functions. Therefore, if
        a virtual public function in a base class specifies no precondition then
        preconditions specified by all its overriding functions in derived classes
        will have no effect (because when checked in <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#or_anchor"><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>OR</em></span></code></a>
        with the overridden function from the base class that has no preconditions,
        they will always pass):
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">u</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// Some base class.</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">f</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="comment">// No preconditions, same as `ASSERT(true)`.</span>
            <span class="special">...</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="special">...</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
        This correctly reflects the fact that the overridden function in the base
        class can be called from any context (because it has no precondition) and
        so must all its overriding functions in all derived classes in accordance
        to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liskov_substitution_principle" target="_top">substitution
        principle</a>. <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.f0"><sup class="footnote">[52]</sup></a> In other words, the code above has the same effect as declaring
        the virtual public function in the base class with a single precondition
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">true</span><span class="special">)</span></code> that
        will always trivially pass:
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">u</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// Some base class.</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">f</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">true</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// Same as no preconditions.</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">...</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="special">...</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="special">...</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
        On the flip side, programmers might sometimes consider to declare a pure
        virtual public function in a base class with a single precondition <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">)</span></code> that
        will always fail. This indicates that the pure virtual public function can
        never be called unless it is redefined by a derived class (which is already
        the case with C++ pure virtual functions) and also that the base class designers
        have intentionally left it up to derived classes to specify preconditions
        for the pure virtual function in question. This technique might make sense
        only for preconditions of pure virtual public functions (otherwise <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">)</span></code> will
        prevent calling virtual public functions in concrete bases). For example
        (see <a href="../../../example/features/named_override.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">named_override.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">generic_unary_pack</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">};</span>

<span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">generic_unary_pack</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// Defer preconditions to overrides.</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="identifier">assert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="special">}</span>

<span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        That said, the need to declare such a precondition <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
        that will always fail might also be an indication that the base class interface
        is not correctly designed. In general, the base class interface should still
        contain all functions (eventually as pure virtual) that are necessary to
        program its contracts.
      </p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values" title="Optional Return Values">Optional
      Return Values</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        It is possible to use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
        to handle return values when programmers cannot construct the result variable
        at its point of declaration before the contract (e.g., because an appropriate
        constructor for the return type is not available at that point, or just because
        it would be too expensive to execute an extra initialization of the return
        value at run-time). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f0"><sup class="footnote">[53]</sup></a> For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/optional_result.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">optional_result.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">Index</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Result not initialized here...</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">Index</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(*</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">Index</span><span class="special">]);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">// Function body (executed after preconditions checked).</span>
    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="special">*(</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">Index</span><span class="special">]);</span> <span class="comment">// ...result initialized here instead.</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        In this example the return type is a reference so it does not have default
        constructor that can be used to initialize <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code>
        when it is declared before the contract declaration. In addition, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Index</span></code> needs to be validated to be smaller
        than <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span></code>
        by the precondition before it can be used to retrieve the reference to assign
        to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> so <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">Index</span><span class="special">]</span></code> cannot be used to initialize <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> when it is declared before the contract
        declaration. Therefore, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
        is used to defer <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> real
        initialization until the execution of the function body, after the contract
        declaration, where <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">Index</span></code>
        has been validated by the precondition and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">vect</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">Index</span><span class="special">]</span></code> can be safely evaluated to initialize <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code>.
      </p>
<p>
        As seen in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.return_values" title="Return Values">Return Values</a>,
        it is the responsibility of the programmers to ensure that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> is always set to the return value
        (when the function exits without trowing an exception). This also ensures
        that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> is always set
        before the postconditions are checked so programmers can always dereference
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> in postconditions
        to access the return value (using <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">*</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">-&gt;</span></code> as usual with <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>,
        and without having to explicitly check if <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code>
        is an empty <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> object or not). This can be done
        ensuring that <span class="emphasis"><em>all</em></span> <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">return</span></code>
        statements in the function are of the form:
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>return-type</em></span></code><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">...</span>
<span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="special">*(</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">=</span> <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>return-expression</em></span></code><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// Assign `result` at each return.</span>
</pre>
<h5>
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.h0"></a>
        <span class="phrase"><a name="boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.optional_results_in_virtual_public_functions"></a></span><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.optional_results_in_virtual_public_functions">Optional
        Results in Virtual Public Functions</a>
      </h5>
<p>
        Similarly, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> can be used to handle the return
        value passed to contracts of virtual public functions (pure or not) and of
        public function overrides. As seen in <a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions" title="Pure Virtual Public Functions">Pure
        Virtual Public Functions</a>, <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.virtual_public_functions" title="Virtual Public Functions">Virtual
        Public Functions</a>, and <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
        Function Overrides</a>, in these cases the return value <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">result</span></code> must be passed as a parameter to
        <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        right after the parameter <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">v</span></code>
        of type <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/virtual_.html" title="Class virtual_">boost::contract::virtual_</a></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code>. Then the functor passed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> takes one single parameter of type
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span></code><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>return-type</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput">
        <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span>
        <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code>.
        For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/optional_result_virtual.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">optional_result_virtual.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">accessible</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">at</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="comment">// Pass `result` right after `v`...</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">index</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="comment">// ...plus postconditions take `result` as a parameter (not capture).</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(*</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">[](</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">));</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="identifier">assert</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The inner <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code>
        in the postcondition functor parameter type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;...</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span> <span class="special">...</span></code>
        is mandatory (while the outer <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code> in the postcondition functor parameter
        type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;...&gt;</span>
        <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code>
        is not). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f1" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f1"><sup class="footnote">[54]</sup></a>
      </p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions" title="Private and Protected Functions">Private
      and Protected Functions</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        Private and protected functions do not check class invariants (because they
        are not part of the public class interface) and they do not subcontract (because
        they are not accessible at the calling site where the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liskov_substitution_principle" target="_top">substitution
        principle</a> applies, see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.function_calls" title="Function Calls">Function
        Calls</a>). However, programmers may still want to specify preconditions
        and postconditions for private and protected functions when they want to
        check correctness of their implementation and use (from within the class,
        base classes, friend classes or functions, etc.). When programmers decide
        to specify contracts for private and protected functions, they can use <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        (because, like for non-member functions, this does not check class invariants
        and does not subcontract). For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/private_protected.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">private_protected.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">counter</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">protected</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="comment">// Protected functions use `function()` (like non-members).</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span> <span class="special">&lt;=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">n_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="comment">// Private functions use `function()` (like non-members).</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">1</span> <span class="special">&gt;=</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">min</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n_</span><span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        Considerations made in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.non_member_functions" title="Non-Member Functions">Non-Member
        Functions</a> apply to private and protected functions as well. See <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.constructors" title="Constructors">Constructors</a> and <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.destructors" title="Destructors">Destructors</a> on how to
        program contracts for private and protected constructors and destructors
        instead.
      </p>
<h5>
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.h0"></a>
        <span class="phrase"><a name="boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.virtual_private_and_protected_functions"></a></span><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.virtual_private_and_protected_functions">Virtual
        Private and Protected Functions</a>
      </h5>
<p>
        When private and protected functions are virtual they should still declare
        the extra virtual parameter of type <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/virtual_.html" title="Class virtual_">boost::contract::virtual_</a></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">*</span></code> with default value <code class="computeroutput"><span class="number">0</span></code>
        (see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.virtual_public_functions" title="Virtual Public Functions">Virtual
        Public Functions</a>) even if that parameter does not have to be passed
        to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>
        and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        takes no such an argument (so the extra virtual parameter will remain unused
        and it does not need a name). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.f0"><sup class="footnote">[55]</sup></a> That is necessary otherwise the private and protected virtual
        functions cannot be overridden by public functions in derived classes that
        specify contracts (because the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span></code>
        parameter has to be part of signatures for public function overrides). For
        example (see <a href="../../../example/features/private_protected_virtual.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">private_protected_virtual.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">counter</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="comment">// Virtual private and protected functions still declare extra</span>
    <span class="comment">// `virtual_* = 0` parameter (otherwise they cannot be overridden), but...</span>
<span class="keyword">protected</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="comment">// ...no `v`.</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span> <span class="special">&lt;=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">n_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">());</span> <span class="comment">// ...no `v`.</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="comment">// ...no `v`.</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">1</span> <span class="special">&gt;=</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">min</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n_</span><span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        However, public functions in derived classes overriding private or protected
        virtual functions from base classes shall not specify the extra <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code>
        template parameter to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        because the overridden functions are private or protected and, not being
        public, they do not participate to subcontracting (this library will generate
        a compile-time error if <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code> is specified because there will be no
        virtual <span class="emphasis"><em>public</em></span> function to override from the base class).
        For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/private_protected_virtual.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">private_protected_virtual.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">counter10</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">counter</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">BASES</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">base_types</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#undef</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>

    <span class="comment">// Overriding from non-public members so no subcontracting, no override_...</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span> <span class="special">%</span> <span class="number">10</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">counter</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">10</span> <span class="special">&gt;=</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">min</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">10</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">10</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        Furthermore, using multiple inheritance it is possible to override functions
        that are private or protected from one base but public from another base.
        In this case, public function overrides in derived classes will specify the
        extra <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code>
        template parameter to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        (because the overridden functions are private or protected in one base and
        those do not participate to subcontracting, but public in another base and
        these participate to subcontracting instead). For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/private_protected_virtual_multi.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">private_protected_virtual_multi.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">countable</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">invariant</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">&lt;=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">};</span>

<span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">counter10</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">countable</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">counter</span> <span class="comment">// Multiple inheritance.</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">BASES</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">base_types</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#undef</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>

    <span class="comment">// Overriding from public members from `countable` so use `override_...`.</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_set</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">counter10</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span> <span class="special">%</span> <span class="number">10</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">counter</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">n</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_dec</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">counter10</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">10</span> <span class="special">&gt;=</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">min</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_get</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">10</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">get</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="number">10</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">set</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">dec</span><span class="special">)</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<div class="warning"><table border="0" summary="Warning">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Warning]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/warning.png"></td>
<th align="left">Warning</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
          Unfortunately, the code above does not compile on MSVC (at least up to
          Visual Studio 2015) because MSVC incorrectly gives a compile-time error
          when SFINAE fails due to private or protected access levels. Instead, GCC
          and Clang correctly implement SFINAE failures due to private and protected
          functions so the code above correctly complies on GCC and Clang. Therefore,
          currently it is not possible to override a function that is public in one
          base but private or protected in other base using this library on MSVC
          (at least up to Visual Studio 2015), but that can correctly be done on
          GCC or Clang instead.
        </p></td></tr>
</table></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions" title="Friend Functions">Friend Functions</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        In general, friend functions are not member functions so <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        is used to program their contracts and all considerations made in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.non_member_functions" title="Non-Member Functions">Non-Member
        Functions</a> apply. For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/friend.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">friend.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">buffer</span><span class="special">;</span>

<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">byte</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="keyword">friend</span> <span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">==(</span><span class="identifier">buffer</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">left</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">byte</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">right</span><span class="special">);</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">buffer</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="comment">// Friend functions are not member functions...</span>
    <span class="keyword">friend</span> <span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="keyword">operator</span><span class="special">==(</span><span class="identifier">buffer</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">left</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">byte</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">right</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="comment">// ...so check contracts via `function` (which won't check invariants).</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(!</span><span class="identifier">left</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">empty</span><span class="special">());</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(!</span><span class="identifier">right</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">empty</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="keyword">for</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">left</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">values_</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">c_str</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">!=</span> <span class="char">'\0'</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(*</span><span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">!=</span> <span class="identifier">right</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="special">}</span>
        <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="keyword">true</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">values_</span><span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        However, in some cases a friend function might take an object as parameter
        and it can be logically considered an extension of that object's public interface
        (essentially at the same level as the object's public functions). In these
        cases, programmers might chose to program the friend function contracts using
        <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        (instead of <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>)
        so to also check the class invariants of the object passed as parameter (and
        not just pre- and postconditions). For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/friend_invariant.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">friend_invariant.cpp</code></a>):
        <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions.f0"><sup class="footnote">[56]</sup></a>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">positive</span> <span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">invariant</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">// Can be considered an extension of enclosing class' public interface...</span>
    <span class="keyword">friend</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">swap</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">positive</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_object_value</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_value</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="comment">// ...so it can be made to check invariants via `public_function`.</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_value</span><span class="special">);</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_object_value</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="identifier">saved</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">object</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">value_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">saved</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="identifier">value_</span><span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        This technique can also be extended to friend functions that take multiple
        objects as parameters and can be logically considered extensions to the public
        interfaces of each of these objects. For example:
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="comment">// Can be considered an extension of multiple objects' public interfaces.</span>
<span class="keyword">friend</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">f</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">class1</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">object1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">class2</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">object2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">type3</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value3</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="comment">// Check preconditions.</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">pre</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">object2</span> <span class="special">!=</span> <span class="keyword">nullptr</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">...</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="comment">// Check class invariants for each object (programmers chose the order).</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">inv1</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">object1</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">inv2</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">object2</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="comment">// Check postconditions and exception guarantees.</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">postex</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">except</span><span class="special">(...)</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="special">...</span> <span class="comment">// Function body.</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
        Changing the order of the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check.html" title="Class check">boost::contract::check</a></code>
        declarations above, programmers can chose the order for checking class invariants
        among the different objects passed to the friend function and also whether
        to check these invariants before or after preconditions, postconditions,
        and exception guarantees of the friend function (see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.non_member_functions" title="Non-Member Functions">Non-Member
        Functions</a> and <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_functions" title="Public Functions">Public
        Functions</a> for information on how the RAII objects returned by <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        check contract conditions). The example above is programmed to check <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">class1</span></code> invariants before <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">class2</span></code> invariants (but that order could
        have been inverted if programmers so chose).
      </p>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
          In the example above, preconditions are intentionally programmed to be
          checked before class invariants so the objects passed to the friend function
          can be validated by the preconditions before they are passed as pointers
          to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
          (e.g., check <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">object2</span></code> is
          not null). (Within member functions instead, the object pointer <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">this</span></code> is always well-formed, its validation
          is never needed, and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
          checks class invariants before checking preconditions so programming preconditions
          can be simplified assuming the class invariants are satisfied already,
          see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.public_function_calls" title="Public Function Calls">Public
          Function Calls</a>.)
        </p></td></tr>
</table></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads" title="Function Overloads">Function
      Overloads</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        No special attention is required when using this library with overloaded
        functions or constructors. The only exception is for the function pointer
        passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        from public function overrides (see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
        Function Overrides</a>). When the name of public function override are
        also overloaded, the related function pointer cannot be automatically deduced
        by the compiler so programmers have to use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">static_cast</span></code>
        to resolve ambiguities (as usual with pointers to overloaded functions in
        C++). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads.f0"><sup class="footnote">[57]</sup></a> For example, note how <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">static_cast</span></code>
        is used in the following calls to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        (see <a href="../../../example/features/overload.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">overload.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">string_lines</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">lines</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">BASES</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">base_types</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#undef</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>

    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">// Invoked only once for all `str` overloads.</span>

    <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_str</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="comment">// `static_cast` resolves overloaded function pointer ambiguities.</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::*)(</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span>
        <span class="special">);</span>

        <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">// Overload on (absence of) `const` qualifier.</span>
    <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_str</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="comment">// `static_cast` resolves overloaded function pointer ambiguities.</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::*)(</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span>
        <span class="special">);</span>

        <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">// Invoked only once for all `put` overloads.</span>

    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_put</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="comment">// `static_cast` resolves overloaded function pointer ambiguities.</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::*)(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;,</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">x</span>
        <span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">// Overload on argument type.</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_put</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="comment">// `static_cast` resolves overloaded function pointer ambiguities.</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::*)(</span><span class="keyword">char</span><span class="special">,</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">x</span>
        <span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">// Overload on argument type and arity (also with default parameter).</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="identifier">tab</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="keyword">false</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_put</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="comment">// `static_cast` resolves overloaded function pointer ambiguities.</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::*)(</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">bool</span><span class="special">,</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">string_lines</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">put</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">tab</span>
        <span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">ostringstream</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">;</span>
                <span class="identifier">s</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">;</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_str</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">tab</span> <span class="special">?</span> <span class="string">"\t"</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="string">""</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">ostringstream</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">s</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">tab</span> <span class="special">?</span> <span class="string">"\t"</span> <span class="special">:</span> <span class="string">""</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">x</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="char">'\n'</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">str_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">str</span><span class="special">();</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

<span class="keyword">private</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span> <span class="identifier">str_</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        Overloaded functions have the same function name so the same <code class="literal">override_<span class="emphasis"><em>function-name</em></span></code>
        type can be reused as template parameter for all <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        calls in a given class. Therefore, <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        only needs to be invoked once for a function name in a given class, even
        when that function name is overloaded.
      </p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__" title="Lambdas, Loops, Code Blocks (and constexpr)">Lambdas,
      Loops, Code Blocks (and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>)</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        While contracts are usually most useful to program specifications of functions
        and class interfaces, this library also allows to check contract conditions
        for implementation code (lambda functions, loops, code blocks, etc.).
      </p>
<p>
        Lambda functions are not member functions, they are not part of class public
        interfaces so they do not check class invariants and they do not subcontract.
        They can use <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        to specify preconditions, postconditions, and exception guarantees (considerations
        made in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.non_member_functions" title="Non-Member Functions">Non-Member
        Functions</a> apply). For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/lambda.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">lambda.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">for_each</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cbegin</span><span class="special">(),</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">cend</span><span class="special">(),</span>
    <span class="comment">// Contract for a lambda function.</span>
    <span class="special">[&amp;</span><span class="identifier">total</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                        <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">max</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">+=</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Lambda function body.</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">);</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        Similarly, <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        can be used to program preconditions, postconditions, and exception guarantees
        for loops. For example, for a for-loop but same for while- and all other
        loops (see <a href="../../../example/features/loop.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">loop.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="comment">// Contract for a for-loop (same for while- and all other loops).</span>
<span class="keyword">for</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">const_iterator</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">begin</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">!=</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">end</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span>
                    <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">numeric_limits</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;::</span><span class="identifier">max</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">-</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">+=</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// For-loop body.</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        More in general, <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
        can be used to program preconditions, postconditions, and exception guarantees
        of any block of code in a given function. For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/code_block.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">code_block.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="comment">/* ... */</span>

<span class="comment">// Contract for a code block.</span>
<span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// Code block entry (check preconditions).</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">int</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">3</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_total</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">0</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">1</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">]);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="identifier">total</span> <span class="special">+=</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">0</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">1</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">];</span> <span class="comment">// Code block body.</span>
<span class="special">}</span> <span class="comment">// Code block exit (check postconditions and exceptions guarantees).</span>

<span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The library does not support contracts for functions and classes declared
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>. <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__.f0"><sup class="footnote">[58]</sup></a>
      </p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks" title="Implementation Checks">Implementation
      Checks</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        This library provides also a mechanism to check assertions within implementation
        code (differently from preconditions, postconditions, exceptions guarantees,
        and class invariants that are instead checked before or after code that implements
        a function body). These <span class="emphasis"><em>implementation checks</em></span> are programmed
        using a nullary functor that is directly assigned to a <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check.html" title="Class check">boost::contract::check</a></code>
        object declaration right at the place within the code where the checks need
        to be performed (without calling <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>,
        <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>,
        etc. in this case). For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/check.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">check.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="comment">// Implementation checks (via nullary functor).</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">12</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">28</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">4</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">4</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">14</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">2</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">};</span>

    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The implementation check functor should capture all the variables that it
        needs for its assertions. These variables can be captured by value when the
        overhead of copying such variables is acceptable. In any case, programmers
        should not write implementation checks that modify the value of the captured
        variables, even when those are captured by reference (see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.constant_correctness" title="Constant-Correctness">Constant-Correctness</a>).
      </p>
<p>
        Any code can be programmed in the implementation check functor, but it is
        recommended to keep this code simple using mainly assertions and if-statements
        (to avoid programming complex checks that might be buggy and also slow to
        check at run-time). It is also recommended to use <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
        to program the assertions because that enables this library to print informative
        error messages when the asserted conditions are evaluated to be false (note
        that this is not a variadic macro, see <a class="link" href="extras.html#boost_contract.extras.no_macros__and_no_variadic_macros_" title="No Macros (and No Variadic Macros)">No
        Macros</a>):
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>boolean-condition</em></span></code><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="comment">// Or, if `boolean-condition` contains commas `,` not already within parenthesis `()`...</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">((</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>boolean-condition</em></span></code><span class="special">))</span> <span class="comment">// ...use extra parenthesis (not a variadic macro).</span>
</pre>
<p>
        This library will automatically call the failure handler <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check_failure.html" title="Function check_failure">boost::contract::check_failure</a></code>
        if any of the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
        conditions are false or, more in general, if calling the implementation check
        functor throws any exception. By default, this failure handler prints an
        error message to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">cerr</span></code> and terminates the program calling
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">terminate</span></code> (see <a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__" title="Throw on Failures (and noexcept)">Throw
        on Failures</a> to change the failure handler to throw exceptions, exit
        the program with an error code, etc.).
      </p>
<p>
        Similarly to the C-style <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span></code>
        macro that is disabled when <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">NDEBUG</span></code>
        is defined, implementation checks are disabled when <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS">BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS</a></code>
        is defined (see <a class="link" href="extras.html#boost_contract.extras.disable_contract_checking" title="Disable Contract Checking">Disable
        Contract Checking</a>). That will skip all implementation checks at run-time
        but it will not eliminate some of the overhead of executing and compiling
        the related <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check.html" title="Class check">boost::contract::check</a></code>
        declarations. Alternatively, this library provides the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</a></code>
        macro that allows to completely remove run- and compile-time overheads of
        implementation checks when <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS">BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS</a></code>
        is defined (note that this is not a variadic macro):
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">(</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>boolean-condition</em></span></code><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="comment">// Or, if `boolean-condition` contains commas `,` not already within parenthesis `()`...</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">((</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>boolean-condition</em></span></code><span class="special">))</span> <span class="comment">// ...use extra parenthesis (not a variadic macro).</span>
</pre>
<p>
        For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/check_macro.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">check_macro.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="comment">// Implementation checks (via macro, disable run-/compile-time overhead).</span>
    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">12</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">28</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">4</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">4</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">14</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">2</span><span class="special">);</span>

    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</a></code>
        macro is similar to the C-style assert macro as it accepts a boolean condition
        (instead of a nullary functor like <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check.html" title="Class check">boost::contract::check</a></code>
        does). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks.f0"><sup class="footnote">[59]</sup></a> Using <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</a></code>
        is essentially equivalent to using the C-style <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span></code>
        macro a part from the following:
      </p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
            Implementation checks are disabled defining <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS">BOOST_CONTRACT_NO_CHECKS</a></code>
            (instead of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">NDEBUG</span></code> for
            disabling <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span></code>).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            If the asserted boolean condition is either false or it throws an exception
            then this library will call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check_failure.html" title="Function check_failure">boost::contract::check_failure</a></code>
            (instead <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span></code> calls
            <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">abort</span></code> if the asserted condition is
            false and it unwinds the stack if evaluating the condition throws an
            exception).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Implementation checks are automatically disabled when other contract
            conditions specified using this library are already being checked (to
            avoid infinite recursion, see <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394999679376.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ALL_DISABLE_NO_ASSERTION">BOOST_CONTRACT_ALL_DISABLE_NO_ASSERTION</a></code>).
          </li>
</ul></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body" title="Old Values Copied at Body">Old
      Values Copied at Body</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        In the examples seen so far, old value variables of type <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_ptr.html" title="Class template old_ptr">boost::contract::old_ptr</a></code>
        are initialized to a copy of the expression passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>
        as soon as they are declared. That correctly happens before the function
        body is executed but also before the contract is declared, therefore even
        before class invariants (for public functions) and preconditions are checked
        at function entry. This might work well in most practical cases however,
        technically speaking, old values should be copied before executing the function
        body but <span class="emphasis"><em>after</em></span> checking class invariants and preconditions
        at function entry (see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.assertions" title="Assertions">Assertions</a>).
        Specifically, there could be cases in which it makes sense to evaluate the
        expressions passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>
        only under the assumption that assertions programmed in class invariants
        and preconditions are true.
      </p>
<p>
        This library allows to construct <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_ptr.html" title="Class template old_ptr">boost::contract::old_ptr</a></code>
        variables using their default constructor (equivalent to a null pointer)
        and then to later assign them to a copy of the expression specified by <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code> in a nullary
        functor <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>d</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">()</span></code>
        passed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(</span></code><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>d</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">)</span></code>. The functor <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>d</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">()</span></code> is called by this library before the function
        body is executed but only after class invariants and preconditions are checked.
        Old value assignments via <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
        must appear after preconditions but before postconditions and exception guarantees
        wen these are all present (see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.preconditions" title="Preconditions">Preconditions</a>,
        <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.postconditions" title="Postconditions">Postconditions</a>,
        and <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.exception_guarantees" title="Exception Guarantees">Exception
        Guarantees</a>). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f0"><sup class="footnote">[60]</sup></a>
      </p>
<p>
        For example, the following old value expression <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">]</span></code> passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>
        is valid only after the precondition has checked that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">index</span></code>
        is within the valid range <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">index</span>
        <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span></code>.
        Therefore, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">old_char</span></code> is first
        declared using its default constructor (i.e., initialized to a null pointer)
        and later assigned to a copy of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">]</span></code> in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
        after the precondition has checked <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">index</span></code>
        (see <a href="../../../example/features/old.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">old.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="identifier">replace</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">string</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">char</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_char</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Null, old value copied later...</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">function</span><span class="special">()</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">index</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// ...after preconditions (and invariants) checked.</span>
            <span class="identifier">old_char</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">]);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_char</span><span class="special">);</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">;</span>

    <span class="identifier">result</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">];</span>
    <span class="identifier">s</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">index</span><span class="special">]</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">result</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The functor passed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> should capture all the variables that
        it needs to evaluate the old value expressions passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>.
        In general, these variables should be captured by reference and not by value
        (because old values need to copy the values the captured variables will have
        just before executing the function body, and not the values these variables
        had when the functor passed to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
        was first declared). In any case, programmers should write the functor passed
        to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> so that it modifies only old values
        and not the values of other captured variables, even when those are captured
        by reference (see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.constant_correctness" title="Constant-Correctness">Constant-Correctness</a>).
      </p>
<p>
        This library will automatically call the failure handler <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_failure.html" title="Function old_failure">boost::contract::old_failure</a></code>
        if calling the functor specified via <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
        throws an exception (by default, this handler prints an error message to
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">cerr</span></code> and terminates the program calling
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">terminate</span></code>, but see <a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__" title="Throw on Failures (and noexcept)">Throw
        on Failures</a> to throw exceptions, exit the program with an error code,
        etc.).
      </p>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
          If old value pointers are initialized at the point of their construction
          instead of using <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> then an exception thrown by the old
          value expression passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code>,
          or more in general any exception thrown by the old value pointer initialization,
          will result in that exception being thrown up the stack by the enclosing
          function. This is arguably less correct than calling <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_failure.html" title="Function old_failure">boost::contract::old_failure</a></code>
          because an exception thrown by an old value copy causes the program to
          fail to check its postconditions and exception guarantees but should not
          automatically causes the enclosing function to thrown an exception (this
          might not be a significant difference in practice, but it could be an additional
          reason to use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> instead of assigning old values when
          they are declared before the contract). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f1" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f1"><sup class="footnote">[61]</sup></a>
        </p></td></tr>
</table></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides" title="Named Overrides">Named Overrides</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        As seen in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
        Function Overrides</a>, the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        macro has to be used to declare the type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code> that is passed as an explicit template
        parameter to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
        for public function overrides. The function names passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        (and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</a></code>)
        should never start with an underscore to avoid generating names containing
        double underscores <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override__</span><span class="special">...</span></code> (because all symbols containing double
        underscores <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">...</span><span class="identifier">__</span><span class="special">...</span></code> are reserved symbols in the C++ standard).
        There is a separate macro <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        that can be used to explicitly specify the name of the type being declared:
        <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f0"><sup class="footnote">[62]</sup></a>
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>function-name</em></span></code><span class="special">)</span>                  <span class="comment">// Generate `override_...`.</span>
<span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>type-name</em></span></code><span class="special">,</span> <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>function-name</em></span></code><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">// Generate `type-name`.</span>
</pre>
<p>
        For example, the following public function override is named <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">_1</span></code> so <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
        would declare a type named <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override__1</span></code>
        (which is reserved symbol in C++ because it contains a double underscore
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">__</span></code>), thus <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">override1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">)</span></code>
        is used to name the type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override1</span></code>
        instead (see <a href="../../../example/features/named_override.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">named_override.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">positive_unary_pack</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">generic_unary_pack</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">BASES</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">base_types</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#undef</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>

    <span class="comment">// BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE(_1) would generate reserved name `override__1`.</span>
    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">override1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">// Generate `override1`.</span>

    <span class="keyword">virtual</span> <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="comment">// Use `override1` generated by BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE above.</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">override1</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span>
            <span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="keyword">static_cast</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">positive_unary_pack</span><span class="special">::*)(</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;,</span>
                    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*)&gt;(&amp;</span><span class="identifier">positive_unary_pack</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">_1</span><span class="special">),</span>
            <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span>
            <span class="identifier">value</span>
        <span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="identifier">value1_</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        The <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        macro can also be used when the name <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code> generated by <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        would clash with other names in user code, to generate names in CamelCase
        or in any other preferred style, and in any other case when programmers need
        or prefer to generate names different from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code>.
      </p>
<p>
        Note that there is not a <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDES</span></code>
        macro so <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>
        needs to be invoked separately on each function name (there is instead a
        <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</a></code>
        macro as seen in <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
        Function Overrides</a>). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f1" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f1"><sup class="footnote">[63]</sup></a>
      </p>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers" title="Access Specifiers">Access Specifiers</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        As seen thus far, this library requires programmers to decorate their classes
        declaring the following extra members:
      </p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
            The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">invariant</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">static_invariant</span></code> member functions (used
            to check class invariants, see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.class_invariants" title="Class Invariants">Class
            Invariants</a>).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">base_types</span></code> member
            <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">typedef</span></code> declared via <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</a></code>
            (used to implement subcontracting, see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
            Function Overrides</a>).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code>
            member types declared via <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>,
            <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>,
            and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDES</a></code>
            (used to implement subcontracting for overriding functions, see <a class="link" href="tutorial.html#boost_contract.tutorial.public_function_overrides__subcontracting_" title="Public Function Overrides (Subcontracting)">Public
            Function Overrides</a>). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f0"><sup class="footnote">[64]</sup></a>
          </li>
</ul></div>
<p>
        In general, these members must be declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code>
        in the user class in order for this library to be able to access them. <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f1" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f1"><sup class="footnote">[65]</sup></a> However, programmers might need to more precisely control the
        public members of their classes to prevent incorrect access of encapsulated
        members. All these members can be declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">private</span></code>
        as long as the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/access.html" title="Class access">boost::contract::access</a></code>
        class is declared as <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">friend</span></code>
        of the user class. For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/access.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">access.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">typename</span> <span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">vector</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">public</span> <span class="identifier">pushable</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">T</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// Private section of the class.</span>
    <span class="keyword">friend</span> <span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">access</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Friend `access` class so...</span>

    <span class="keyword">typedef</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_BASE_TYPES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">BASES</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">base_types</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// ...private bases.</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#undef</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>

    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">invariant</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// ...private invariants.</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">&lt;=</span> <span class="identifier">capacity</span><span class="special">());</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">push_back</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="comment">// ...private overrides.</span>

<span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span> <span class="comment">// Public section of the class.</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">push_back</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">T</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">virtual_</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">v</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="comment">/* override */</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">old_ptr</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">old_size</span> <span class="special">=</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">());</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">public_function</span><span class="special">&lt;</span>
                <span class="identifier">override_push_back</span><span class="special">&gt;(</span><span class="identifier">v</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">&amp;</span><span class="identifier">vector</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">push_back</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">)</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">max_size</span><span class="special">());</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
            <span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="special">*</span><span class="identifier">old_size</span> <span class="special">+</span> <span class="number">1</span><span class="special">);</span>
            <span class="special">})</span>
        <span class="special">;</span>

        <span class="identifier">vect_</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">push_back</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">value</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        This technique is not used in most examples of this documentation only for
        brevity. Programmers are encouraged to use <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/access.html" title="Class access">boost::contract::access</a></code>
        in real production code freely as they see fit.
      </p>
<div class="warning"><table border="0" summary="Warning">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Warning]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/warning.png"></td>
<th align="left">Warning</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
          Not declaring <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/access.html" title="Class access">boost::contract::access</a></code>
          friend of user classes might cause compiler errors on some compilers (e.g.,
          MSVC) because the private members needed to check the contracts will not
          be accessible. On other compilers (e.g., GCC and Clang), the private access
          level will instead fail SFINAE and no compiler error will be reported while
          invariants and subcontracting will be silently skipped at run-time. Therefore,
          programmers should always make sure to either declare invariant functions
          and base types <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">typedef</span></code> as
          public members or to declare <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/access.html" title="Class access">boost::contract::access</a></code>
          as friend.
        </p></td></tr>
</table></div>
</div>
<div class="section">
<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__"></a><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__" title="Throw on Failures (and noexcept)">Throw
      on Failures (and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code>)</a>
</h3></div></div></div>
<p>
        If a condition checked using <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
        is evaluated to be false or, more in general, if any of the specified contract
        code throws an exception (<code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
        simply expands to code that throws a <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/assertion_failure.html" title="Class assertion_failure">boost::contract::assertion_failure</a></code>
        exception, see <a class="link" href="extras.html#boost_contract.extras.no_macros__and_no_variadic_macros_" title="No Macros (and No Variadic Macros)">No
        Macros</a>), this library will call an appropriate <span class="emphasis"><em>contract
        failure handler</em></span> function as follow:
      </p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
            Preconditions: False <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
            assertions and exceptions thrown from within <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
            call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/precondition_failure.html" title="Function precondition_failure">boost::contract::precondition_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Postconditions: False <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
            assertions and exceptions thrown from within <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
            call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/postcondition_failure.html" title="Function postcondition_failure">boost::contract::postcondition_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Exceptions guarantees: False <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
            assertions and exceptions thrown from within <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">except</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>
            call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/except_failure.html" title="Function except_failure">boost::contract::except_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Class invariants: False <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
            assertions and exceptions thrown from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">invariant</span><span class="special">()</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">static_invariant</span><span class="special">()</span></code> call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/entry_invariant_failure.html" title="Function entry_invariant_failure">boost::contract::entry_invariant_failure</a></code>
            when checked at function entry and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/exit_invariant_failure.html" title="Function exit_invariant_failure">boost::contract::exit_invariant_failure</a></code>
            when checked at function exit.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Old values copied at body: Exceptions thrown from old values copied at
            body within <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_failure.html" title="Function old_failure">boost::contract::old_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Implementation checks: False <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>
            assertions and exceptions thrown from implementation checks <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span>
            <span class="special">=</span> </code><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>nullary-functor</em></span></code>
            and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check_failure.html" title="Function check_failure">boost::contract::check_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
</ul></div>
<p>
        By default, these contract failure handlers print a message to the standard
        error <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">cerr</span></code> and then terminate the program calling
        <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">terminate</span></code>. <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f0" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f0"><sup class="footnote">[66]</sup></a> However, programmers can override the default contract failure
        handlers to perform any custom action on contract failure using the following
        functions respectively:
      </p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
            Preconditions: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_precondition_failure.html" title="Function set_precondition_failure">boost::contract::set_precondition_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Postconditions: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_postcondition_failure.html" title="Function set_postcondition_failure">boost::contract::set_postcondition_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Exception guarantees: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_except_failure.html" title="Function set_except_failure">boost::contract::set_except_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Class invariants: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_entr_idm45394999333872.html" title="Function set_entry_invariant_failure">boost::contract::set_entry_invariant_failure</a></code>
            and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_exit_invariant_failure.html" title="Function set_exit_invariant_failure">boost::contract::set_exit_invariant_failure</a></code>,
            or <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_invariant_failure.html" title="Function set_invariant_failure">boost::contract::set_invariant_failure</a></code>
            (to set both entry and exit invariant failure handlers at once for convenience).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Old values copied at body: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_old_failure.html" title="Function set_old_failure">boost::contract::set_old_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Implementation checks: <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/set_check_failure.html" title="Function set_check_failure">boost::contract::set_check_failure</a></code>.
          </li>
</ul></div>
<p>
        These <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">set_</span><span class="special">...</span><span class="identifier">_failure</span><span class="special">(</span></code><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>f</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">)</span></code> function calls return a reference to the
        contract failure handler functor <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>f</em></span></code>
        that they take as input parameter (so they can be concatenated). <a href="#ftn.boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f1" class="footnote" name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f1"><sup class="footnote">[67]</sup></a> For example (see <a href="../../../example/features/throw_on_failure.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">throw_on_failure.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">int</span> <span class="identifier">main</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_precondition_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_postcondition_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_invariant_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_old_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
        <span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">from</span> <span class="identifier">where</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">where</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">from_destructor</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
                <span class="comment">// Shall not throw from C++ destructors.</span>
                <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">clog</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="string">"ignored destructor contract failure"</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">endl</span><span class="special">;</span>
            <span class="special">}</span> <span class="keyword">else</span> <span class="keyword">throw</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Re-throw (assertion_failure, user-defined, etc.).</span>
        <span class="special">}</span>
    <span class="special">))));</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_except_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
        <span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">from</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="comment">// Already an active exception so shall not throw another...</span>
            <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">clog</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="string">"ignored exception guarantee failure"</span> <span class="special">&lt;&lt;</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">endl</span><span class="special">;</span>
        <span class="special">}</span>
    <span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_check_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
        <span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="comment">// But now CHECK shall not be used in destructor implementations.</span>
            <span class="keyword">throw</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Re-throw (assertion_failure, user-defined, etc.).</span>
        <span class="special">}</span>
    <span class="special">);</span>

    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
        When programming custom failure handlers that trow exceptions instead of
        terminating the program, programmers should be wary of the following:
      </p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" style="list-style-type: disc; ">
<li class="listitem">
            In order to comply with C++ and STL exception safety, destructors should
            never throw (in fact destructors are implicitly declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code> since C++11). This library passes
            a <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/from.html" title="Type from">boost::contract::from</a></code>
            parameter to the contract failure handlers for preconditions, postconditions,
            class invariants, and old values copied at body (see <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/precondition_failure.html" title="Function precondition_failure">boost::contract::precondition_failure</a></code>,
            <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/postcondition_failure.html" title="Function postcondition_failure">boost::contract::postcondition_failure</a></code>,
            <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/entry_invariant_failure.html" title="Function entry_invariant_failure">boost::contract::entry_invariant_failure</a></code>,
            <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/exit_invariant_failure.html" title="Function exit_invariant_failure">boost::contract::exit_invariant_failure</a></code>,
            and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_failure.html" title="Function old_failure">boost::contract::old_failure</a></code>
            respectively). This <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/from.html" title="Type from">boost::contract::from</a></code>
            parameter indicates if the contract failure occurred in a destructor,
            constructor, or function call so programmers can use it to code custom
            contract failure hander functions that never throw from destructors.
            (In the example above, contract failures from destructors are simply
            ignored even if that is probably never a safe thing to do in real production
            code.)
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            C++ stack-unwinding will execute base class destructors even when the
            derived class destructor trows an exception. Therefore, the contracts
            of base class destructors will continue to be checked when contract failure
            handlers are programmed to throw exceptions on contract failures from
            destructors (yet another reason not to throw exceptions from destructors,
            not even because of contract failures).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            The contract failure handler for exception guarantees <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/except_failure.html" title="Function except_failure">boost::contract::except_failure</a></code>
            should never throw (regardless of the value of its <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/from.html" title="Type from">boost::contract::from</a></code>
            parameter) because when <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/except_failure.html" title="Function except_failure">boost::contract::except_failure</a></code>
            is called there is already an active exception on the stack, the exception
            that triggered the exception guarantees to be checked in the first place
            (throwing an exception while there is already an active exception will
            force program termination or lead to undefined behaviour in C++).
          </li>
<li class="listitem">
            Implementation checks can appear in any code, including destructor implementation
            code, so <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check_failure.html" title="Function check_failure">boost::contract::check_failure</a></code>
            should also never throw, or implementation checks should never be used
            in destructors otherwise these destructors will throw (note that <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/check_failure.html" title="Function check_failure">boost::contract::check_failure</a></code>
            does not provide the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/from.html" title="Type from">boost::contract::from</a></code>
            parameter so it is not possible to differentiate from implementation
            checks failing from destructors instead than from other parts of the
            code).
          </li>
</ul></div>
<div class="note"><table border="0" summary="Note">
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" align="center" valign="top" width="25"><img alt="[Note]" src="../../../../../doc/src/images/note.png"></td>
<th align="left">Note</th>
</tr>
<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><p>
          Programmers need to decide how to handle contract failures from destructors
          when they write custom contract failure handlers that throw exceptions
          instead of terminating the program (given that C++ and STL exception safety
          rules requires destructors to never throw). This is not a simple dilemma
          and it might be a good reason to terminate the program instead of throwing
          exceptions when assertions fail in C++ (as this library and also C-style
          <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">assert</span></code> do by default).
        </p></td></tr>
</table></div>
<h5>
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.h0"></a>
        <span class="phrase"><a name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.throw_user_defined_exceptions"></a></span><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.throw_user_defined_exceptions">Throw
        User-Defined Exceptions</a>
      </h5>
<p>
        Contract assertions can be programmed to throw <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/assertion_failure.html" title="Class assertion_failure">boost::contract::assertion_failure</a></code>
        using <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span></code><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>condition</em></span></code><code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">)</span></code> as we have seen so far (see <a class="link" href="extras.html#boost_contract.extras.no_macros__and_no_variadic_macros_" title="No Macros (and No Variadic Macros)">No
        Macros</a>). Alternatively, contract assertions can be programmed to throw
        any other exception (including user-defined exceptions) using code similar
        to the following:
      </p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(!</span><code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>condition</em></span></code><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">throw</span> <code class="literal"><span class="emphasis"><em>exception-object</em></span></code><span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
        For example, the following precondition functor throws <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/assertion_failure.html" title="Class assertion_failure">boost::contract::assertion_failure</a></code>
        (via <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</a></code>)
        on its first assertion and the user-defined exception <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">too_large_error</span></code>
        on its second assertion (both exceptions will cause this library to call
        the customized <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/precondition_failure.html" title="Function precondition_failure">boost::contract::precondition_failure</a></code>
        listed above which will in turn re-throw the exceptions up the stack, see
        <a href="../../../example/features/throw_on_failure.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">throw_on_failure.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">too_large_error</span> <span class="special">{};</span>

<span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">cstring</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">private</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">constructor_precondition</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">cstring</span><span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="special">\</span>
            <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="comment">/* implicit */</span> <span class="identifier">cstring</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">char</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">*</span> <span class="identifier">chars</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">:</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">constructor_precondition</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">cstring</span><span class="special">&gt;([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">{</span>
            <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">chars</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// Throw `assertion_failure`.</span>
            <span class="comment">// Or, throw user-defined exception.</span>
            <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">strlen</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">chars</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">throw</span> <span class="identifier">too_large_error</span><span class="special">();</span>
        <span class="special">})</span>
    <span class="special">{</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<h5>
<a name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.h1"></a>
        <span class="phrase"><a name="boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.exception_specifiers___code__phrase_role__keyword__noexcept__phrase___code__and__code__phrase_role__keyword__throw__phrase___code___"></a></span><a class="link" href="advanced.html#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.exception_specifiers___code__phrase_role__keyword__noexcept__phrase___code__and__code__phrase_role__keyword__throw__phrase___code___">Exception
        Specifiers (<code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">throw</span></code>`)</a>
      </h5>
<p>
        Exception specifiers <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code>
        (since C++11) and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">throw</span></code> (deprecated
        in C++11) of the enclosing function, constructor, or destructor declaring
        the contract correctly apply to the contract code as well. Therefore, even
        if the contract failure handlers are reprogrammed to throw exceptions in
        case of contract failures, those exceptions will never be thrown outside
        the context of the enclosing operation if that is not in accordance with
        the exception specifiers of that operation (specifically, note that all destructors
        are implicitly declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code>
        in C++11).
      </p>
<p>
        For example, the following code will correctly never throw from the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">noexcept</span></code> destructor, not even if the class
        invariants checked at destructor entry throw <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">too_large_error</span></code>
        and the contract failure handlers for invariants are programmed to throw
        from destructors (the program will always terminate in this case instead,
        see <a href="../../../example/features/throw_on_failure.cpp" target="_top"><code class="literal">throw_on_failure.cpp</code></a>):
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">struct</span> <span class="identifier">too_large_error</span> <span class="special">{};</span>

<span class="keyword">template</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">&gt;</span>
<span class="keyword">class</span> <span class="identifier">cstring</span>
    <span class="preprocessor">#define</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span> <span class="keyword">private</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">constructor_precondition</span><span class="special">&lt;</span><span class="identifier">cstring</span><span class="special">&lt;</span> <span class="special">\</span>
            <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span>
    <span class="special">:</span> <span class="identifier">BASES</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">public</span><span class="special">:</span>
    <span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">invariant</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">const</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="special">&gt;</span> <span class="identifier">MaxSize</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">throw</span> <span class="identifier">too_large_error</span><span class="special">();</span> <span class="comment">// Throw user-defined ex.</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">chars_</span><span class="special">);</span> <span class="comment">// Or, throw `assertion_failure`.</span>
        <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_ASSERT</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">chars_</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">size</span><span class="special">()]</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="char">'\0'</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>

    <span class="special">~</span><span class="identifier">cstring</span><span class="special">()</span> <span class="keyword">noexcept</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="comment">// Exception specifiers apply to contract code.</span>
        <span class="comment">// Check invariants.</span>
        <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">check</span> <span class="identifier">c</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">destructor</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">this</span><span class="special">);</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">    <span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
<span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
<p>
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="comment">/* ... */</span>

<span class="comment">// Warning... might cause destructors to throw (unless declared noexcept).</span>
<span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_invariant_failure</span><span class="special">(</span>
    <span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">contract</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">from</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">{</span>
        <span class="keyword">throw</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="comment">// Throw no matter if from destructor, etc.</span>
    <span class="special">}</span>
<span class="special">);</span>

<span class="comment">/* ... */</span>
</pre>
<p>
      </p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<br><hr style="width:100; text-align:left;margin-left: 0">
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.pure_virtual_public_functions.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[52] </sup></a>
          This consequence of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liskov_substitution_principle" target="_top">substitution
          principle</a> <span class="quote">&#8220;<span class="quote">that if any function in an inheritance hierarchy
          has no preconditions, then preconditions on functions overriding it have
          no useful effect</span>&#8221;</span> is also explicitly mentioned in the contract documentation
          of the D Programming Language (see <a class="link" href="bibliography.html#Bright04_anchor">[Bright04]</a>).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[53] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> This library uses <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> instead of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code>
          to support a larger number of compilers and their versions (because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> was not available before C++17).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f1" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.optional_return_values.f1" class="para"><sup class="para">[54] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> This library requires the postcondition
          functor parameter to be of type <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;...</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span></code> so the return value does not have
          to be copied (because of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">&amp;</span></code>)
          while postconditions are still not allowed to change its value (because
          of <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">const</span></code>, see <a class="link" href="contract_programming_overview.html#boost_contract.contract_programming_overview.constant_correctness" title="Constant-Correctness">Constant-Correctness</a>).
          In addition, programmers are encouraged to declare the postcondition functor
          to take its argument also as a constant reference <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span><span class="special">&lt;...</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">const</span><span class="special">&amp;</span></code> to avoid possibly expensive copies
          of the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">optional</span></code> type itself.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.private_and_protected_functions.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[55] </sup></a>
          Technically, the extra virtual parameter can still be passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF">BOOST_CONTRACT_OLDOF</a></code> but that is
          not necessary and it has no effect so it is not done in this documentation.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.friend_functions.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[56] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> Contract programming proposals
          for C++ like <a class="link" href="bibliography.html#N1962_anchor">[N1962]</a> do not provide
          a mechanism for friend functions to check class invariants of objects passed
          as parameters. In other words, these proposals do not enable contracts
          to recognize that in C++ some friend functions logically act as if they
          were part of the public interface of the objects they take as parameters.
          This is reasonable for proposals that add contracts to the core language
          because friend functions are not always meant to extend an object public
          interface and C++ does not provide a mechanism to programmatically specify
          when they do and when they do not. However, this library provides the flexibility
          to let programmers manually specify when friend functions should also check
          class invariants of the objects they take as parameters (using <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>)
          and when they should not (using <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/function.html" title="Function function">boost::contract::function</a></code>
          instead).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.function_overloads.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[57] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> In order to avoid copies, this
          library takes all function arguments and the return value passed to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>
          as references when used within public function overrides. Therefore, the
          library cannot differentiate when the actual function argument and return
          types are passed by reference and when they are not. As a result, the library
          cannot automatically reconstruct the type of the enclosing public function
          so this type must be deduced from the function pointer passed by programmers
          to <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/public_f_idm45394998885120.html" title="Function template public_function">boost::contract::public_function</a></code>.
          When this automatic deduction is not possible due to overloaded function
          names, programmers must explicitly use <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">static_cast</span></code>
          to resolve ambiguities as usual in C++ with pointers to overloaded functions.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.lambdas__loops__code_blocks__and__constexpr__.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[58] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> In general, it might be useful
          to specify contracts for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>
          functions and literal classes. However, the current implementation of this
          library cannot support contracts for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>
          functions and classes because C++ does not currently allow <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code> functions to do the following:
          Declare local variables of (literal) types with non-trivial <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code> destructors (this RAII technique
          is used by this library to check invariants, postconditions, and exceptions
          guarantees at exit); Call other <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>
          functions using try-catch statements (used by this library to report contract
          assertion failures and catch any other exception that might be thrown when
          evaluating the asserted conditions); Use lambda functions (used by this
          library for convenience to program functors that that check preconditions,
          postconditions, and exception guarantees). Also note that even if supported,
          contracts for <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code> functions
          probably would not use old values (because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>
          prevents functions from having any side effect visible to the caller and
          variables recording such side-effects are usually the candidates for old
          value copies) and subcontracting (because <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">constexpr</span></code>
          functions cannot be virtual).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks.f0" class="footnote">
<p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.implementation_checks.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[59] </sup></a>
          Of course, nothing prevents programmers from calling functors within <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</a></code> to specify
          boolean conditions when if-guards and other statements are required to
          assert the implementation checks. For example, programmers can use C++11
          lambda functions to define and call such functors in place where the implementation
          checks are specified:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_CHECK</span><span class="special">([&amp;]</span> <span class="special">-&gt;</span> <span class="keyword">bool</span> <span class="special">{</span>
    <span class="keyword">if</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">even_numbers</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">y</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">2</span><span class="special">;</span>
    <span class="keyword">else</span> <span class="keyword">return</span> <span class="identifier">gcd</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">x</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">y</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">==</span> <span class="number">3</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span> <span class="special">());</span>
</pre>
<p>
        </p>
</div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[60] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> Functors for preconditions,
          old value assignments, postconditions, and exception guarantees are all
          optional but when specified, they must be specified in that order. Such
          order is enforced by the fact that <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/specify__idm45394999179040.html" title="Class template specify_precondition_old_postcondition_except">boost::contract::specify_precondition_old_postcondition_except</a></code>,
          <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/specify__idm45394999245856.html" title="Class template specify_old_postcondition_except">boost::contract::specify_old_postcondition_except</a></code>,
          <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/specify__idm45394999207792.html" title="Class template specify_postcondition_except">boost::contract::specify_postcondition_except</a></code>,
          <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/specify_except.html" title="Class specify_except">boost::contract::specify_except</a></code>,
          and <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/specify_nothing.html" title="Class specify_nothing">boost::contract::specify_nothing</a></code>
          provide a progressively smaller subset of their <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">precondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>,
          <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>, <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">postcondition</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>,
          and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">except</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code> member functions. The enforced order
          for specifying preconditions, old value assignments, postconditions, and
          exception guarantees makes logical sense because it follows the order at
          which these are executed at run-time. Other contract programming frameworks
          allow to mix this order, that could have been implemented for this library
          as well but it would have complicated somewhat the library implementation
          while adding no real value (arguably creating confusion in user code by
          not enforcing a consistent order for specifying contract conditions).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f1" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.old_values_copied_at_body.f1" class="para"><sup class="para">[61] </sup></a>
            <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> It would be possible for
            this library to internally wrap all old value operations (<code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_ptr.html" title="Class template old_ptr">boost::contract::old_ptr</a></code> copy
            constructor, <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/make_old_idm45394998968720.html" title="Function make_old">boost::contract::make_old</a></code>,
            etc.) with try-catch statements so to call <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/old_failure.html" title="Function old_failure">boost::contract::old_failure</a></code>
            also when old values are copied when they are constructed outside <code class="computeroutput"><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">old</span><span class="special">(...)</span></code>. However, that will prevent this
            library from knowing the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/from.html" title="Type from">boost::contract::from</a></code>
            parameter and that would be problematic (specifically because destructors
            can have postconditions so that parameter is necessary to make sure user-defined
            failure handlers can be programmed to never throw from destructors as
            C++ usually requires).
          </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[62] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> A different macro <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>
          is used instead of overloading <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
          using variadic macros because the override macro cannot be programmed manually
          by users so making it a variadic would prevent to use this library on compilers
          that do not support variadic macros (see <a class="link" href="extras.html#boost_contract.extras.no_macros__and_no_variadic_macros_" title="No Macros (and No Variadic Macros)">No
          Macros</a>).
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f1" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.named_overrides.f1" class="para"><sup class="para">[63] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> The syntax for invoking a possible
          <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDES</span></code>
          macro would need to be something like <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDES</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">type_name1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">func_name1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">type_name2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">func_name2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="special">...)</span></code>.
          The authors found such a syntax less readable than repeating single <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CO_idm45394998912688.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</a></code>
          invocations as in <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">type_name1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">func_name1</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDE</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">type_name2</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">func_name2</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">...</span></code> so
          decided not to provide the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">BOOST_CONTRACT_NAMED_OVERRIDES</span></code>
          macro.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[64] </sup></a>
              <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> Note that the internals
              of the <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code>
              type generated by <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE.html" title="Macro BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE">BOOST_CONTRACT_OVERRIDE</a></code>
              use names reserved by this library so programmers should not actually
              use such a type even when it is declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code>.
            </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f1" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.access_specifiers.f1" class="para"><sup class="para">[65] </sup></a>
          There is some variability among compiler implementations: The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">base_types</span></code> member type needs to be declared
          <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code> on MSVC, GCC, and Clang;
          The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">invariant</span></code> and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">static_invariant</span></code> member functions need
          to be declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code> on MSVC,
          but not on GCC and Clang; The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">override_</span><span class="special">...</span></code> member types do not have to be declared
          <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code> on any compiler. In
          any case, declaring these extra members all <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">public</span></code>
          or all <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">private</span></code> when the <code class="computeroutput"><a class="link" href="../boost/contract/access.html" title="Class access">boost::contract::access</a></code> class
          is also declared <code class="computeroutput"><span class="keyword">friend</span></code> always
          works on all compilers.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f0" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f0" class="para"><sup class="para">[66] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> In general, when a contract
          fails the only safe thing to do is to terminate program execution (because
          the contract failure indicates a bug in the program, and in general a buggy
          program will be in a state for which no operation can be successfully and
          safely performed, so the program should be stopped as soon as possible).
          Therefore, this library terminates the program by default. However, for
          specific applications, programmers could implement some fail-safe mechanism
          for which some mission-critical operations could always be performed upon
          handling failures so this library allows programmers to override the default
          contract failure handlers to fully customize how to handle contract failures.
        </p></div>
<div id="ftn.boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f1" class="footnote"><p><a href="#boost_contract.advanced.throw_on_failures__and__noexcept__.f1" class="para"><sup class="para">[67] </sup></a>
          <span class="bold"><strong>Rationale:</strong></span> The <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">set_</span><span class="special">...</span><span class="identifier">_failure</span></code>
          functions take a functor as parameter (to accept not just function pointers
          but also lambdas, binds, etc.) and they return this same functor as result
          so they can be concatenated (this interface is a bit different from <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">set_terminate</span></code>). The related <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">get_</span><span class="special">...</span><span class="identifier">_failure</span></code> functions can be used to query
          the functors currently set as failure handlers (this interface is similar
          to <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">get_terminate</span></code>).
        </p></div>
</div>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright &#169; 2008-2019 Lorenzo Caminiti<p>
        Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0 (see accompanying
        file LICENSE_1_0.txt or a copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
      </p>
</div></td>
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